diff --git a/src/ripple/app/misc/impl/Manifest.cpp b/src/ripple/app/misc/impl/Manifest.cpp
index be4424eb0..8dcd0d085 100644
--- a/src/ripple/app/misc/impl/Manifest.cpp
+++ b/src/ripple/app/misc/impl/Manifest.cpp
@@ -39,32 +39,30 @@ boost::optional<Manifest> deserializeManifest(Slice s)
     if (s.empty())
         return boost::none;
 
-    static SOTemplate const manifestFormat (
-        [](SOTemplate& t)
-        {
+    static SOTemplate const manifestFormat {
             // A manifest must include:
             // - the master public key
-            t.push_back (SOElement (sfPublicKey,       SOE_REQUIRED));
+            {sfPublicKey,       soeREQUIRED},
 
             // - a signature with that public key
-            t.push_back (SOElement (sfMasterSignature, SOE_REQUIRED));
+            {sfMasterSignature, soeREQUIRED},
 
             // - a sequence number
-            t.push_back (SOElement (sfSequence,        SOE_REQUIRED));
+            {sfSequence,        soeREQUIRED},
 
             // It may, optionally, contain:
             // - a version number which defaults to 0
-            t.push_back (SOElement (sfVersion,          SOE_DEFAULT));
+            {sfVersion,         soeDEFAULT},
 
             // - a domain name
-            t.push_back (SOElement (sfDomain,           SOE_OPTIONAL));
+            {sfDomain,          soeOPTIONAL},
 
             // - an ephemeral signing key that can be changed as necessary
-            t.push_back (SOElement (sfSigningPubKey,    SOE_OPTIONAL));
+            {sfSigningPubKey,   soeOPTIONAL},
 
             // - a signature using the ephemeral signing key, if it is present
-            t.push_back (SOElement (sfSignature,        SOE_OPTIONAL));
-        });
+            {sfSignature,       soeOPTIONAL},
+        };
 
     try
     {
diff --git a/src/ripple/protocol/InnerObjectFormats.h b/src/ripple/protocol/InnerObjectFormats.h
index f573eb9af..29297563a 100644
--- a/src/ripple/protocol/InnerObjectFormats.h
+++ b/src/ripple/protocol/InnerObjectFormats.h
@@ -29,18 +29,12 @@ namespace ripple {
 class InnerObjectFormats : public KnownFormats <int>
 {
 private:
-    void addCommonFields (Item& item) override;
-
-public:
-    virtual ~InnerObjectFormats () = default;
-    InnerObjectFormats(InnerObjectFormats const&) = delete;
-    InnerObjectFormats& operator=(InnerObjectFormats const&) = delete;
-
     /** Create the object.
-        This will load the object will all the known inner object formats.
+        This will load the object with all the known inner object formats.
     */
     InnerObjectFormats ();
 
+public:
     static InnerObjectFormats const& getInstance ();
 
     SOTemplate const* findSOTemplateBySField (SField const& sField) const;
diff --git a/src/ripple/protocol/KnownFormats.h b/src/ripple/protocol/KnownFormats.h
index d8d88d990..2500836b6 100644
--- a/src/ripple/protocol/KnownFormats.h
+++ b/src/ripple/protocol/KnownFormats.h
@@ -22,7 +22,9 @@
 
 #include <ripple/basics/contract.h>
 #include <ripple/protocol/SOTemplate.h>
-#include <memory>
+#include <boost/container/flat_map.hpp>
+#include <algorithm>
+#include <forward_list>
 
 namespace ripple {
 
@@ -42,50 +44,49 @@ public:
     class Item
     {
     public:
-        Item (char const* name, KeyType type)
-            : m_name (name)
-            , m_type (type)
+        Item (char const* name,
+            KeyType type,
+            std::initializer_list<SOElement> uniqueFields,
+            std::initializer_list<SOElement> commonFields)
+            : soTemplate_ (uniqueFields, commonFields)
+            , name_ (name)
+            , type_ (type)
         {
-        }
-
-        Item& operator<< (SOElement const& el)
-        {
-            elements.push_back (el);
-
-            return *this;
+            // Verify that KeyType is appropriate.
+            static_assert (
+                std::is_enum<KeyType>::value ||
+                std::is_integral<KeyType>::value,
+                "KnownFormats KeyType must be integral or enum.");
         }
 
         /** Retrieve the name of the format.
         */
-        std::string const& getName () const noexcept
+        std::string const& getName () const
         {
-            return m_name;
+            return name_;
         }
 
         /** Retrieve the transaction type this format represents.
         */
-        KeyType getType () const noexcept
+        KeyType getType () const
         {
-            return m_type;
+            return type_;
         }
 
-    public:
-        // VFALCO TODO make an accessor for this
-        SOTemplate elements;
+        SOTemplate const& getSOTemplate() const
+        {
+            return soTemplate_;
+        }
 
     private:
-        std::string const m_name;
-        KeyType const m_type;
+        SOTemplate soTemplate_;
+        std::string const name_;
+        KeyType const type_;
     };
 
-private:
-    using NameMap = std::map <std::string, Item*>;
-    using TypeMap = std::map <KeyType, Item*>;
-
-public:
     /** Create the known formats object.
 
-        Derived classes will load the object will all the known formats.
+        Derived classes will load the object with all the known formats.
     */
     KnownFormats () = default;
 
@@ -104,7 +105,7 @@ public:
         @param  name The name of the type.
         @return      The type.
     */
-    KeyType findTypeByName (std::string const name) const
+    KeyType findTypeByName (std::string const& name) const
     {
         Item const* const result = findByName (name);
 
@@ -116,71 +117,55 @@ public:
 
     /** Retrieve a format based on its type.
     */
-    // VFALCO TODO Can we just return the SOElement& ?
-    Item const* findByType (KeyType type) const noexcept
+    Item const* findByType (KeyType type) const
     {
-        Item* result = nullptr;
-
-        typename TypeMap::const_iterator const iter = m_types.find (type);
-
-        if (iter != m_types.end ())
-        {
-            result = iter->second;
-        }
-
-        return result;
+        auto const itr = types_.find (type);
+        if (itr == types_.end())
+            return nullptr;
+        return itr->second;
     }
 
 protected:
     /** Retrieve a format based on its name.
     */
-    Item const* findByName (std::string const& name) const noexcept
+    Item const* findByName (std::string const& name) const
     {
-        Item* result = nullptr;
-
-        typename NameMap::const_iterator const iter = m_names.find (name);
-
-        if (iter != m_names.end ())
-        {
-            result = iter->second;
-        }
-
-        return result;
+        auto const itr = names_.find (name);
+        if (itr == names_.end())
+            return nullptr;
+        return itr->second;
     }
 
     /** Add a new format.
 
-        The new format has the set of common fields already added.
-
         @param name The name of this format.
         @param type The type of this format.
+        @param uniqueFields An std::initializer_list of unique fields
+        @param commonFields An std::initializer_list of common fields
 
         @return The created format.
     */
-    Item& add (char const* name, KeyType type)
+    Item const& add (char const* name, KeyType type,
+        std::initializer_list<SOElement> uniqueFields,
+        std::initializer_list<SOElement> commonFields = {})
     {
-        m_formats.emplace_back (
-            std::make_unique <Item> (name, type));
-        auto& item (*m_formats.back());
+        formats_.emplace_front (name, type, uniqueFields, commonFields);
+        Item const& item {formats_.front()};
 
-        addCommonFields (item);
-
-        m_types [item.getType ()] = &item;
-        m_names [item.getName ()] = &item;
+        names_[name] = &item;
+        types_[type] = &item;
 
         return item;
     }
 
-    /** Adds common fields.
-
-        This is called for every new item.
-    */
-    virtual void addCommonFields (Item& item) = 0;
-
 private:
-    std::vector <std::unique_ptr <Item>> m_formats;
-    NameMap m_names;
-    TypeMap m_types;
+    // One of the situations where a std::forward_list is useful.  We want to
+    // store each Item in a place where its address won't change.  So a node-
+    // based container is appropriate.  But we don't need searchability.
+    std::forward_list<Item> formats_;
+
+    boost::container::flat_map<std::string, Item const*> names_;
+    boost::container::flat_map<KeyType, Item const*> types_;
 };
 
 } // ripple
diff --git a/src/ripple/protocol/LedgerFormats.h b/src/ripple/protocol/LedgerFormats.h
index dd0474e2e..66a27d9b9 100644
--- a/src/ripple/protocol/LedgerFormats.h
+++ b/src/ripple/protocol/LedgerFormats.h
@@ -164,13 +164,13 @@ enum LedgerSpecificFlags
 class LedgerFormats : public KnownFormats <LedgerEntryType>
 {
 private:
+    /** Create the object.
+        This will load the object with all the known ledger formats.
+    */
     LedgerFormats ();
 
 public:
     static LedgerFormats const& getInstance ();
-
-private:
-    void addCommonFields (Item& item) override;
 };
 
 } // ripple
diff --git a/src/ripple/protocol/SOTemplate.h b/src/ripple/protocol/SOTemplate.h
index 8544f206d..dd46f93f0 100644
--- a/src/ripple/protocol/SOTemplate.h
+++ b/src/ripple/protocol/SOTemplate.h
@@ -22,19 +22,19 @@
 
 #include <ripple/basics/contract.h>
 #include <ripple/protocol/SField.h>
-#include <boost/range.hpp>
+#include <functional>
+#include <initializer_list>
 #include <memory>
 
 namespace ripple {
 
-/** Flags for elements in a SOTemplate. */
-// VFALCO NOTE these don't look like bit-flags...
-enum SOE_Flags
+/** Kind of element in each entry of an SOTemplate. */
+enum SOEStyle
 {
-    SOE_INVALID  = -1,
-    SOE_REQUIRED = 0,   // required
-    SOE_OPTIONAL = 1,   // optional, may be present with default value
-    SOE_DEFAULT  = 2,   // optional, if present, must not have default value
+    soeINVALID  = -1,
+    soeREQUIRED = 0,   // required
+    soeOPTIONAL = 1,   // optional, may be present with default value
+    soeDEFAULT  = 2,   // optional, if present, must not have default value
 };
 
 //------------------------------------------------------------------------------
@@ -42,17 +42,28 @@ enum SOE_Flags
 /** An element in a SOTemplate. */
 class SOElement
 {
-public:
-    SField const&     e_field;
-    SOE_Flags const   flags;
+    // Use std::reference_wrapper so SOElement can be stored in a std::vector.
+    std::reference_wrapper<SField const> sField_;
+    SOEStyle                             style_;
 
-    SOElement (SField const& fieldName, SOE_Flags flags)
-        : e_field (fieldName)
-        , flags (flags)
+public:
+    SOElement (SField const& fieldName, SOEStyle style)
+        : sField_ (fieldName)
+        , style_ (style)
     {
-        if (! e_field.isUseful())
+        if (! sField_.get().isUseful())
             Throw<std::runtime_error> ("SField in SOElement must be useful.");
     }
+
+    SField const& sField () const
+    {
+        return sField_.get();
+    }
+
+    SOEStyle style () const
+    {
+        return style_;
+    }
 };
 
 //------------------------------------------------------------------------------
@@ -64,64 +75,57 @@ public:
 class SOTemplate
 {
 public:
-    using list_type = std::vector <std::unique_ptr <SOElement const>>;
-    using iterator_range = boost::iterator_range<list_type::const_iterator>;
+    // Copying vectors is expensive.  Make this a move-only type until
+    // there is motivation to change that.
+    SOTemplate(SOTemplate&& other) = default;
+    SOTemplate& operator=(SOTemplate&& other) = default;
 
-    /** Create an empty template.
-        After creating the template, call @ref push_back with the
-        desired fields.
-        @see push_back
+    /** Create a template populated with all fields.
+        After creating the template fields cannot be
+        added, modified, or removed.
     */
-    SOTemplate () = default;
-
-    SOTemplate(SOTemplate&& other)
-        : mTypes(std::move(other.mTypes))
-        , mIndex(std::move(other.mIndex))
-    {
-    }
-
-    /** Create a template and pass it to the callback to be populated.
-
-        The callback will typically consist of one or more calls to the
-        @ref push_back member function on the object that it is passed.
-
-        @see push_back
-    */
-    SOTemplate(std::function<void(SOTemplate&)> callback)
-        : SOTemplate()
-    {
-        if (callback)
-            callback(*this);
-    }
+    SOTemplate (std::initializer_list<SOElement> uniqueFields,
+        std::initializer_list<SOElement> commonFields = {});
 
     /* Provide for the enumeration of fields */
-    iterator_range all () const
+    std::vector<SOElement>::const_iterator begin() const
     {
-        return boost::make_iterator_range(mTypes);
+        return elements_.cbegin();
+    }
+
+    std::vector<SOElement>::const_iterator cbegin() const
+    {
+        return begin();
+    }
+
+    std::vector<SOElement>::const_iterator end() const
+    {
+        return elements_.cend();
+    }
+
+    std::vector<SOElement>::const_iterator cend() const
+    {
+        return end();
     }
 
     /** The number of entries in this template */
     std::size_t size () const
     {
-        return mTypes.size ();
+        return elements_.size ();
     }
 
-    /** Add an element to the template. */
-    void push_back (SOElement const& r);
-
     /** Retrieve the position of a named field. */
     int getIndex (SField const&) const;
 
-    SOE_Flags
+    SOEStyle
     style(SField const& sf) const
     {
-        return mTypes[mIndex[sf.getNum()]]->flags;
+        return elements_[indices_[sf.getNum()]].style();
     }
 
 private:
-    list_type mTypes;
-
-    std::vector <int> mIndex;       // field num -> index
+    std::vector<SOElement> elements_;
+    std::vector<int> indices_;              // field num -> index
 };
 
 } // ripple
diff --git a/src/ripple/protocol/STObject.h b/src/ripple/protocol/STObject.h
index 531437758..24610c556 100644
--- a/src/ripple/protocol/STObject.h
+++ b/src/ripple/protocol/STObject.h
@@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ private:
             typename T::value_type;
 
         STObject* st_;
-        SOE_Flags style_;
+        SOEStyle style_;
         TypedField<T> const* f_;
 
         Proxy (Proxy const&) = default;
@@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ private:
 
         /** Returns `true` if the field is set.
 
-            Fields with SOE_DEFAULT and set to the
+            Fields with soeDEFAULT and set to the
             default value will return `true`
         */
         explicit operator bool() const noexcept;
@@ -672,7 +672,7 @@ STObject::Proxy<T>::Proxy (STObject* st, TypedField<T> const* f)
     }
     else
     {
-        style_ = SOE_INVALID;
+        style_ = soeINVALID;
     }
 }
 
@@ -684,7 +684,7 @@ STObject::Proxy<T>::value() const ->
     auto const t = find();
     if (t)
         return t->value();
-    if (style_ != SOE_DEFAULT)
+    if (style_ != soeDEFAULT)
         Throw<STObject::FieldErr> (
             "Missing field '" + this->f_->getName() + "'");
     return value_type{};
@@ -704,14 +704,14 @@ template <class U>
 void
 STObject::Proxy<T>::assign(U&& u)
 {
-    if (style_ == SOE_DEFAULT &&
+    if (style_ == soeDEFAULT &&
         u == value_type{})
     {
         st_->makeFieldAbsent(*f_);
         return;
     }
     T* t;
-    if (style_ == SOE_INVALID)
+    if (style_ == soeINVALID)
         t = dynamic_cast<T*>(
             st_->getPField(*f_, true));
     else
@@ -832,7 +832,7 @@ template <class T>
 bool
 STObject::OptionalProxy<T>::engaged() const noexcept
 {
-    return this->style_ == SOE_DEFAULT
+    return this->style_ == soeDEFAULT
         || this->find() != nullptr;
 }
 
@@ -840,11 +840,11 @@ template <class T>
 void
 STObject::OptionalProxy<T>::disengage()
 {
-    if (this->style_ == SOE_REQUIRED ||
-            this->style_ == SOE_DEFAULT)
+    if (this->style_ == soeREQUIRED ||
+            this->style_ == soeDEFAULT)
         Throw<STObject::FieldErr> (
             "Template field error '" + this->f_->getName() + "'");
-    if (this->style_ == SOE_INVALID)
+    if (this->style_ == soeINVALID)
         this->st_->delField(*this->f_);
     else
         this->st_->makeFieldAbsent(*this->f_);
@@ -878,10 +878,10 @@ STObject::operator[](TypedField<T> const& f) const
     {
         assert(mType);
         assert(b->getSType() == STI_NOTPRESENT);
-        if(mType->style(f) == SOE_OPTIONAL)
+        if(mType->style(f) == soeOPTIONAL)
             Throw<STObject::FieldErr> (
                 "Missing field '" + f.getName() + "'");
-        assert(mType->style(f) == SOE_DEFAULT);
+        assert(mType->style(f) == soeDEFAULT);
         // Handle the case where value_type is a
         // const reference, otherwise we return
         // the address of a temporary.
@@ -905,9 +905,9 @@ STObject::operator[](OptionaledField<T> const& of) const
     {
         assert(mType);
         assert(b->getSType() == STI_NOTPRESENT);
-        if(mType->style(*of.f) == SOE_OPTIONAL)
+        if(mType->style(*of.f) == soeOPTIONAL)
             return boost::none;
-        assert(mType->style(*of.f) == SOE_DEFAULT);
+        assert(mType->style(*of.f) == soeDEFAULT);
         return typename T::value_type{};
     }
     return u->value();
diff --git a/src/ripple/protocol/TxFormats.h b/src/ripple/protocol/TxFormats.h
index 2f8a39b10..2fd3ca2fd 100644
--- a/src/ripple/protocol/TxFormats.h
+++ b/src/ripple/protocol/TxFormats.h
@@ -65,14 +65,12 @@ enum TxType
 class TxFormats : public KnownFormats <TxType>
 {
 private:
-    void addCommonFields (Item& item) override;
-
-public:
     /** Create the object.
-        This will load the object will all the known transaction formats.
+        This will load the object with all the known transaction formats.
     */
     TxFormats ();
 
+public:
     static TxFormats const& getInstance ();
 };
 
diff --git a/src/ripple/protocol/impl/InnerObjectFormats.cpp b/src/ripple/protocol/impl/InnerObjectFormats.cpp
index 8872d4caf..ef194f580 100644
--- a/src/ripple/protocol/impl/InnerObjectFormats.cpp
+++ b/src/ripple/protocol/impl/InnerObjectFormats.cpp
@@ -23,20 +23,18 @@ namespace ripple {
 
 InnerObjectFormats::InnerObjectFormats ()
 {
-    add (sfSignerEntry.getJsonName ().c_str (), sfSignerEntry.getCode ())
-        << SOElement (sfAccount,              SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfSignerWeight,         SOE_REQUIRED)
-        ;
+    add (sfSignerEntry.jsonName.c_str(), sfSignerEntry.getCode(),
+        {
+            {sfAccount,       soeREQUIRED},
+            {sfSignerWeight,  soeREQUIRED},
+        });
 
-    add (sfSigner.getJsonName ().c_str (), sfSigner.getCode ())
-        << SOElement (sfAccount,              SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfSigningPubKey,        SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfTxnSignature,         SOE_REQUIRED)
-        ;
-}
-
-void InnerObjectFormats::addCommonFields (Item& item)
-{
+    add (sfSigner.jsonName.c_str(), sfSigner.getCode(),
+        {
+            {sfAccount,       soeREQUIRED},
+            {sfSigningPubKey, soeREQUIRED},
+            {sfTxnSignature,  soeREQUIRED},
+        });
 }
 
 InnerObjectFormats const&
@@ -49,12 +47,11 @@ InnerObjectFormats::getInstance ()
 SOTemplate const*
 InnerObjectFormats::findSOTemplateBySField (SField const& sField) const
 {
-    SOTemplate const* ret = nullptr;
     auto itemPtr = findByType (sField.getCode ());
     if (itemPtr)
-        ret = &(itemPtr->elements);
+        return &(itemPtr->getSOTemplate());
 
-    return ret;
+    return nullptr;
 }
 
 } // ripple
diff --git a/src/ripple/protocol/impl/LedgerFormats.cpp b/src/ripple/protocol/impl/LedgerFormats.cpp
index e3410c5dd..76a2aaa1b 100644
--- a/src/ripple/protocol/impl/LedgerFormats.cpp
+++ b/src/ripple/protocol/impl/LedgerFormats.cpp
@@ -28,163 +28,188 @@ namespace ripple {
 
 LedgerFormats::LedgerFormats ()
 {
-    add ("AccountRoot", ltACCOUNT_ROOT)
-            << SOElement (sfAccount,             SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfSequence,            SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfBalance,             SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfOwnerCount,          SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfPreviousTxnID,       SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfPreviousTxnLgrSeq,   SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfAccountTxnID,        SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfRegularKey,          SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfEmailHash,           SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfWalletLocator,       SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfWalletSize,          SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfMessageKey,          SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfTransferRate,        SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfDomain,              SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfTickSize,            SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            ;
+    // Fields shared by all ledger formats:
+    static const std::initializer_list<SOElement> commonFields
+    {
+        { sfLedgerIndex,             soeOPTIONAL },
+        { sfLedgerEntryType,         soeREQUIRED },
+        { sfFlags,                   soeREQUIRED },
+    };
 
-    add ("DirectoryNode", ltDIR_NODE)
-            << SOElement (sfOwner,               SOE_OPTIONAL)  // for owner directories
-            << SOElement (sfTakerPaysCurrency,   SOE_OPTIONAL)  // for order book directories
-            << SOElement (sfTakerPaysIssuer,     SOE_OPTIONAL)  // for order book directories
-            << SOElement (sfTakerGetsCurrency,   SOE_OPTIONAL)  // for order book directories
-            << SOElement (sfTakerGetsIssuer,     SOE_OPTIONAL)  // for order book directories
-            << SOElement (sfExchangeRate,        SOE_OPTIONAL)  // for order book directories
-            << SOElement (sfIndexes,             SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfRootIndex,           SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfIndexNext,           SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfIndexPrevious,       SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            ;
+    add ("AccountRoot", ltACCOUNT_ROOT,
+        {
+            { sfAccount,             soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfSequence,            soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfBalance,             soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfOwnerCount,          soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfPreviousTxnID,       soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfPreviousTxnLgrSeq,   soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfAccountTxnID,        soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfRegularKey,          soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfEmailHash,           soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfWalletLocator,       soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfWalletSize,          soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfMessageKey,          soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfTransferRate,        soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfDomain,              soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfTickSize,            soeOPTIONAL },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("Offer", ltOFFER)
-            << SOElement (sfAccount,             SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfSequence,            SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfTakerPays,           SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfTakerGets,           SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfBookDirectory,       SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfBookNode,            SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfOwnerNode,           SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfPreviousTxnID,       SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfPreviousTxnLgrSeq,   SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfExpiration,          SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            ;
+    add ("DirectoryNode", ltDIR_NODE,
+        {
+            { sfOwner,               soeOPTIONAL },  // for owner directories
+            { sfTakerPaysCurrency,   soeOPTIONAL },  // for order book directories
+            { sfTakerPaysIssuer,     soeOPTIONAL },  // for order book directories
+            { sfTakerGetsCurrency,   soeOPTIONAL },  // for order book directories
+            { sfTakerGetsIssuer,     soeOPTIONAL },  // for order book directories
+            { sfExchangeRate,        soeOPTIONAL },  // for order book directories
+            { sfIndexes,             soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfRootIndex,           soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfIndexNext,           soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfIndexPrevious,       soeOPTIONAL },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("RippleState", ltRIPPLE_STATE)
-            << SOElement (sfBalance,             SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfLowLimit,            SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfHighLimit,           SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfPreviousTxnID,       SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfPreviousTxnLgrSeq,   SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfLowNode,             SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfLowQualityIn,        SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfLowQualityOut,       SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfHighNode,            SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfHighQualityIn,       SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfHighQualityOut,      SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            ;
+    add ("Offer", ltOFFER,
+        {
+            { sfAccount,             soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfSequence,            soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfTakerPays,           soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfTakerGets,           soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfBookDirectory,       soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfBookNode,            soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfOwnerNode,           soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfPreviousTxnID,       soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfPreviousTxnLgrSeq,   soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfExpiration,          soeOPTIONAL },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("Escrow", ltESCROW)
-            << SOElement (sfAccount,             SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfDestination,         SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfAmount,              SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfCondition,           SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfCancelAfter,         SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfFinishAfter,         SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfSourceTag,           SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfDestinationTag,      SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfOwnerNode,           SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfPreviousTxnID,       SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfPreviousTxnLgrSeq,   SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfDestinationNode,     SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            ;
+    add ("RippleState", ltRIPPLE_STATE,
+        {
+            { sfBalance,             soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfLowLimit,            soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfHighLimit,           soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfPreviousTxnID,       soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfPreviousTxnLgrSeq,   soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfLowNode,             soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfLowQualityIn,        soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfLowQualityOut,       soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfHighNode,            soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfHighQualityIn,       soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfHighQualityOut,      soeOPTIONAL },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("LedgerHashes", ltLEDGER_HASHES)
-            << SOElement (sfFirstLedgerSequence, SOE_OPTIONAL) // Remove if we do a ledger restart
-            << SOElement (sfLastLedgerSequence,  SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfHashes,              SOE_REQUIRED)
-            ;
+    add ("Escrow", ltESCROW,
+        {
+            { sfAccount,             soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfDestination,         soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfAmount,              soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfCondition,           soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfCancelAfter,         soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfFinishAfter,         soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfSourceTag,           soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfDestinationTag,      soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfOwnerNode,           soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfPreviousTxnID,       soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfPreviousTxnLgrSeq,   soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfDestinationNode,     soeOPTIONAL },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("Amendments", ltAMENDMENTS)
-            << SOElement (sfAmendments,          SOE_OPTIONAL) // Enabled
-            << SOElement (sfMajorities,          SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            ;
+    add ("LedgerHashes", ltLEDGER_HASHES,
+        {
+            { sfFirstLedgerSequence, soeOPTIONAL }, // Remove if we do a ledger restart
+            { sfLastLedgerSequence,  soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfHashes,              soeREQUIRED },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("FeeSettings", ltFEE_SETTINGS)
-            << SOElement (sfBaseFee,             SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfReferenceFeeUnits,   SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfReserveBase,         SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfReserveIncrement,    SOE_REQUIRED)
-            ;
+    add ("Amendments", ltAMENDMENTS,
+        {
+            { sfAmendments,          soeOPTIONAL }, // Enabled
+            { sfMajorities,          soeOPTIONAL },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("Ticket", ltTICKET)
-            << SOElement (sfAccount,             SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfSequence,            SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfOwnerNode,           SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfTarget,              SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfExpiration,          SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            ;
+    add ("FeeSettings", ltFEE_SETTINGS,
+        {
+            { sfBaseFee,             soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfReferenceFeeUnits,   soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfReserveBase,         soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfReserveIncrement,    soeREQUIRED },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    // All fields are SOE_REQUIRED because there is always a
+    add ("Ticket", ltTICKET,
+        {
+            { sfAccount,             soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfSequence,            soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfOwnerNode,           soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfTarget,              soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfExpiration,          soeOPTIONAL },
+        },
+        commonFields);
+
+    // All fields are soeREQUIRED because there is always a
     // SignerEntries.  If there are no SignerEntries the node is deleted.
-    add ("SignerList", ltSIGNER_LIST)
-            << SOElement (sfOwnerNode,           SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfSignerQuorum,        SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfSignerEntries,       SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfSignerListID,        SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfPreviousTxnID,       SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfPreviousTxnLgrSeq,   SOE_REQUIRED)
-            ;
+    add ("SignerList", ltSIGNER_LIST,
+        {
+            { sfOwnerNode,           soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfSignerQuorum,        soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfSignerEntries,       soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfSignerListID,        soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfPreviousTxnID,       soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfPreviousTxnLgrSeq,   soeREQUIRED },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("PayChannel", ltPAYCHAN)
-            << SOElement (sfAccount,             SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfDestination,         SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfAmount,              SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfBalance,             SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfPublicKey,           SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfSettleDelay,         SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfExpiration,          SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfCancelAfter,         SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfSourceTag,           SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfDestinationTag,      SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfOwnerNode,           SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfPreviousTxnID,       SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfPreviousTxnLgrSeq,   SOE_REQUIRED)
-            ;
+    add ("PayChannel", ltPAYCHAN,
+        {
+            { sfAccount,             soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfDestination,         soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfAmount,              soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfBalance,             soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfPublicKey,           soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfSettleDelay,         soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfExpiration,          soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfCancelAfter,         soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfSourceTag,           soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfDestinationTag,      soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfOwnerNode,           soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfPreviousTxnID,       soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfPreviousTxnLgrSeq,   soeREQUIRED },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("Check", ltCHECK)
-            << SOElement (sfAccount,             SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfDestination,         SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfSendMax,             SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfSequence,            SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfOwnerNode,           SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfDestinationNode,     SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfExpiration,          SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfInvoiceID,           SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfSourceTag,           SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfDestinationTag,      SOE_OPTIONAL)
-            << SOElement (sfPreviousTxnID,       SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfPreviousTxnLgrSeq,   SOE_REQUIRED)
-            ;
+    add ("Check", ltCHECK,
+        {
+            { sfAccount,             soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfDestination,         soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfSendMax,             soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfSequence,            soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfOwnerNode,           soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfDestinationNode,     soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfExpiration,          soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfInvoiceID,           soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfSourceTag,           soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfDestinationTag,      soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfPreviousTxnID,       soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfPreviousTxnLgrSeq,   soeREQUIRED },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("DepositPreauth", ltDEPOSIT_PREAUTH)
-            << SOElement (sfAccount,             SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfAuthorize,           SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfOwnerNode,           SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfPreviousTxnID,       SOE_REQUIRED)
-            << SOElement (sfPreviousTxnLgrSeq,   SOE_REQUIRED)
-            ;
-}
-
-void LedgerFormats::addCommonFields (Item& item)
-{
-    item
-        << SOElement(sfLedgerIndex,             SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement(sfLedgerEntryType,         SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement(sfFlags,                   SOE_REQUIRED)
-        ;
+    add ("DepositPreauth", ltDEPOSIT_PREAUTH,
+        {
+            { sfAccount,             soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfAuthorize,           soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfOwnerNode,           soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfPreviousTxnID,       soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfPreviousTxnLgrSeq,   soeREQUIRED },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 }
 
 LedgerFormats const&
diff --git a/src/ripple/protocol/impl/SOTemplate.cpp b/src/ripple/protocol/impl/SOTemplate.cpp
index 5abac18de..eccbfbb2a 100644
--- a/src/ripple/protocol/impl/SOTemplate.cpp
+++ b/src/ripple/protocol/impl/SOTemplate.cpp
@@ -21,44 +21,45 @@
 
 namespace ripple {
 
-void SOTemplate::push_back (SOElement const& r)
+SOTemplate::SOTemplate (
+    std::initializer_list<SOElement> uniqueFields,
+    std::initializer_list<SOElement> commonFields)
+    : indices_ (SField::getNumFields () + 1, -1) // Unmapped indices == -1
 {
-    // Ensure there is the enough space in the index mapping
-    // table for all possible fields.
-    //
-    if (mIndex.empty ())
+    // Add all SOElements.
+    elements_.reserve (uniqueFields.size() + commonFields.size());
+    elements_.assign (uniqueFields);
+    elements_.insert (elements_.end(), commonFields);
+
+    // Validate and index elements_.
+    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < elements_.size(); ++i)
     {
-        // Unmapped indices are initialized to -1
+        SField const& sField {elements_[i].sField()};
+
+        // Make sure the field's index is in range
         //
-        mIndex.resize (SField::getNumFields () + 1, -1);
+        if (sField.getNum() <= 0 || sField.getNum() >= indices_.size())
+            Throw<std::runtime_error> ("Invalid field index for SOTemplate.");
+
+        // Make sure that this field hasn't already been assigned
+        //
+        if (getIndex (sField) != -1)
+            Throw<std::runtime_error> ("Duplicate field index for SOTemplate.");
+
+        // Add the field to the index mapping table
+        //
+        indices_[sField.getNum ()] = i;
     }
-
-    // Make sure the field's index is in range
-    //
-    if (r.e_field.getNum() <= 0 || r.e_field.getNum() >= mIndex.size())
-        Throw<std::runtime_error> ("Invalid field index for SOTemplate.");
-
-    // Make sure that this field hasn't already been assigned
-    //
-    if (getIndex (r.e_field) != -1)
-        Throw<std::runtime_error> ("Duplicate field index for SOTemplate.");
-
-    // Add the field to the index mapping table
-    //
-    mIndex [r.e_field.getNum ()] = mTypes.size ();
-
-    // Append the new element.
-    //
-    mTypes.push_back (std::make_unique<SOElement const> (r));
 }
 
-int SOTemplate::getIndex (SField const& f) const
+int SOTemplate::getIndex (SField const& sField) const
 {
     // The mapping table should be large enough for any possible field
     //
-    assert (f.getNum () < mIndex.size ());
+    if (sField.getNum() <= 0 || sField.getNum() >= indices_.size())
+        Throw<std::runtime_error> ("Invalid field index for getIndex().");
 
-    return mIndex[f.getNum ()];
+    return indices_[sField.getNum()];
 }
 
 } // ripple
diff --git a/src/ripple/protocol/impl/STLedgerEntry.cpp b/src/ripple/protocol/impl/STLedgerEntry.cpp
index 15f011091..75462ffc4 100644
--- a/src/ripple/protocol/impl/STLedgerEntry.cpp
+++ b/src/ripple/protocol/impl/STLedgerEntry.cpp
@@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ STLedgerEntry::STLedgerEntry (Keylet const& k)
     if (format == nullptr)
         Throw<std::runtime_error> ("invalid ledger entry type");
 
-    set (format->elements);
+    set (format->getSOTemplate());
 
     setFieldU16 (sfLedgerEntryType,
         static_cast <std::uint16_t> (type_));
@@ -78,7 +78,7 @@ void STLedgerEntry::setSLEType ()
         Throw<std::runtime_error> ("invalid ledger entry type");
 
     type_ = format->getType ();
-    applyTemplate (format->elements);  // May throw
+    applyTemplate (format->getSOTemplate());  // May throw
 }
 
 std::string STLedgerEntry::getFullText () const
diff --git a/src/ripple/protocol/impl/STObject.cpp b/src/ripple/protocol/impl/STObject.cpp
index b91d18c09..46a53b349 100644
--- a/src/ripple/protocol/impl/STObject.cpp
+++ b/src/ripple/protocol/impl/STObject.cpp
@@ -91,12 +91,12 @@ void STObject::set (const SOTemplate& type)
     v_.reserve(type.size());
     mType = &type;
 
-    for (auto const& elem : type.all())
+    for (auto const& elem : type)
     {
-        if (elem->flags != SOE_REQUIRED)
-            v_.emplace_back(detail::nonPresentObject, elem->e_field);
+        if (elem.style() != soeREQUIRED)
+            v_.emplace_back(detail::nonPresentObject, elem.sField());
         else
-            v_.emplace_back(detail::defaultObject, elem->e_field);
+            v_.emplace_back(detail::defaultObject, elem.sField());
     }
 }
 
@@ -114,16 +114,16 @@ void STObject::applyTemplate (const SOTemplate& type) noexcept (false)
     mType = &type;
     decltype(v_) v;
     v.reserve(type.size());
-    for (auto const& e : type.all())
+    for (auto const& e : type)
     {
         auto const iter = std::find_if(
             v_.begin(), v_.end(), [&](detail::STVar const& b)
-                { return b.get().getFName() == e->e_field; });
+                { return b.get().getFName() == e.sField(); });
         if (iter != v_.end())
         {
-            if ((e->flags == SOE_DEFAULT) && iter->get().isDefault())
+            if ((e.style() == soeDEFAULT) && iter->get().isDefault())
             {
-                throwFieldErr (e->e_field.fieldName,
+                throwFieldErr (e.sField().fieldName,
                     "may not be explicitly set to default.");
             }
             v.emplace_back(std::move(*iter));
@@ -131,12 +131,12 @@ void STObject::applyTemplate (const SOTemplate& type) noexcept (false)
         }
         else
         {
-            if (e->flags == SOE_REQUIRED)
+            if (e.style() == soeREQUIRED)
             {
-                throwFieldErr (e->e_field.fieldName,
+                throwFieldErr (e.sField().fieldName,
                     "is required but missing.");
             }
-            v.emplace_back(detail::nonPresentObject, e->e_field);
+            v.emplace_back(detail::nonPresentObject, e.sField());
         }
     }
     for (auto const& e : v_)
diff --git a/src/ripple/protocol/impl/STTx.cpp b/src/ripple/protocol/impl/STTx.cpp
index 0fe820412..65a72e98a 100644
--- a/src/ripple/protocol/impl/STTx.cpp
+++ b/src/ripple/protocol/impl/STTx.cpp
@@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ STTx::STTx (STObject&& object) noexcept (false)
     : STObject (std::move (object))
 {
     tx_type_ = safe_cast<TxType> (getFieldU16 (sfTransactionType));
-    applyTemplate (getTxFormat (tx_type_)->elements);  //  may throw
+    applyTemplate (getTxFormat (tx_type_)->getSOTemplate());  //  may throw
     tid_ = getHash(HashPrefix::transactionID);
 }
 
@@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ STTx::STTx (SerialIter& sit) noexcept (false)
 
     tx_type_ = safe_cast<TxType> (getFieldU16 (sfTransactionType));
 
-    applyTemplate (getTxFormat (tx_type_)->elements);  // May throw
+    applyTemplate (getTxFormat (tx_type_)->getSOTemplate());  // May throw
     tid_ = getHash(HashPrefix::transactionID);
 }
 
@@ -88,7 +88,7 @@ STTx::STTx (
 {
     auto format = getTxFormat (type);
 
-    set (format->elements);
+    set (format->getSOTemplate());
     setFieldU16 (sfTransactionType, format->getType ());
 
     assembler (*this);
diff --git a/src/ripple/protocol/impl/STValidation.cpp b/src/ripple/protocol/impl/STValidation.cpp
index 1e1934be9..73327f251 100644
--- a/src/ripple/protocol/impl/STValidation.cpp
+++ b/src/ripple/protocol/impl/STValidation.cpp
@@ -147,26 +147,23 @@ SOTemplate const& STValidation::getFormat ()
 {
     struct FormatHolder
     {
-        SOTemplate format;
-
-        FormatHolder ()
+        SOTemplate format
         {
-            format.push_back (SOElement (sfFlags,           SOE_REQUIRED));
-            format.push_back (SOElement (sfLedgerHash,      SOE_REQUIRED));
-            format.push_back (SOElement (sfLedgerSequence,  SOE_OPTIONAL));
-            format.push_back (SOElement (sfCloseTime,       SOE_OPTIONAL));
-            format.push_back (SOElement (sfLoadFee,         SOE_OPTIONAL));
-            format.push_back (SOElement (sfAmendments,      SOE_OPTIONAL));
-            format.push_back (SOElement (sfBaseFee,         SOE_OPTIONAL));
-            format.push_back (SOElement (sfReserveBase,     SOE_OPTIONAL));
-            format.push_back (SOElement (sfReserveIncrement, SOE_OPTIONAL));
-            format.push_back (SOElement (sfSigningTime,     SOE_REQUIRED));
-            format.push_back (SOElement (sfSigningPubKey,   SOE_REQUIRED));
-            format.push_back (SOElement (sfSignature,       SOE_OPTIONAL));
-            format.push_back (SOElement (sfConsensusHash,   SOE_OPTIONAL));
-            format.push_back (SOElement (sfCookie,          SOE_OPTIONAL));
-
-        }
+            { sfFlags,            soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfLedgerHash,       soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfLedgerSequence,   soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfCloseTime,        soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfLoadFee,          soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfAmendments,       soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfBaseFee,          soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfReserveBase,      soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfReserveIncrement, soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfSigningTime,      soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfSigningPubKey,    soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfSignature,        soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfConsensusHash,    soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfCookie,           soeOPTIONAL },
+        };
     };
 
     static const FormatHolder holder;
diff --git a/src/ripple/protocol/impl/TxFormats.cpp b/src/ripple/protocol/impl/TxFormats.cpp
index db7b712e2..99804318d 100644
--- a/src/ripple/protocol/impl/TxFormats.cpp
+++ b/src/ripple/protocol/impl/TxFormats.cpp
@@ -23,164 +23,205 @@ namespace ripple {
 
 TxFormats::TxFormats ()
 {
-    add ("AccountSet", ttACCOUNT_SET)
-        << SOElement (sfEmailHash,           SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfWalletLocator,       SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfWalletSize,          SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfMessageKey,          SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfDomain,              SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfTransferRate,        SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfSetFlag,             SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfClearFlag,           SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfTickSize,            SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        ;
+    // Fields shared by all txFormats:
+    static const std::initializer_list<SOElement> commonFields
+    {
+        { sfTransactionType,      soeREQUIRED },
+        { sfFlags,                soeOPTIONAL },
+        { sfSourceTag,            soeOPTIONAL },
+        { sfAccount,              soeREQUIRED },
+        { sfSequence,             soeREQUIRED },
+        { sfPreviousTxnID,        soeOPTIONAL }, // emulate027
+        { sfLastLedgerSequence,   soeOPTIONAL },
+        { sfAccountTxnID,         soeOPTIONAL },
+        { sfFee,                  soeREQUIRED },
+        { sfOperationLimit,       soeOPTIONAL },
+        { sfMemos,                soeOPTIONAL },
+        { sfSigningPubKey,        soeREQUIRED },
+        { sfTxnSignature,         soeOPTIONAL },
+        { sfSigners,              soeOPTIONAL }, // submit_multisigned
+    };
 
-    add ("TrustSet", ttTRUST_SET)
-        << SOElement (sfLimitAmount,         SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfQualityIn,           SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfQualityOut,          SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        ;
+    add ("AccountSet", ttACCOUNT_SET,
+        {
+            { sfEmailHash,           soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfWalletLocator,       soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfWalletSize,          soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfMessageKey,          soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfDomain,              soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfTransferRate,        soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfSetFlag,             soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfClearFlag,           soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfTickSize,            soeOPTIONAL },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("OfferCreate", ttOFFER_CREATE)
-        << SOElement (sfTakerPays,           SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfTakerGets,           SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfExpiration,          SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfOfferSequence,       SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        ;
+    add ("TrustSet", ttTRUST_SET,
+        {
+            { sfLimitAmount,         soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfQualityIn,           soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfQualityOut,          soeOPTIONAL },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("OfferCancel", ttOFFER_CANCEL)
-        << SOElement (sfOfferSequence,       SOE_REQUIRED)
-        ;
+    add ("OfferCreate", ttOFFER_CREATE,
+        {
+            { sfTakerPays,           soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfTakerGets,           soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfExpiration,          soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfOfferSequence,       soeOPTIONAL },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("SetRegularKey", ttREGULAR_KEY_SET)
-        << SOElement (sfRegularKey,          SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        ;
+    add ("OfferCancel", ttOFFER_CANCEL,
+        {
+            { sfOfferSequence,       soeREQUIRED },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("Payment", ttPAYMENT)
-        << SOElement (sfDestination,         SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfAmount,              SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfSendMax,             SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfPaths,               SOE_DEFAULT)
-        << SOElement (sfInvoiceID,           SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfDestinationTag,      SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfDeliverMin,          SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        ;
+    add ("SetRegularKey", ttREGULAR_KEY_SET,
+        {
+            { sfRegularKey,          soeOPTIONAL },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("EscrowCreate", ttESCROW_CREATE)
-        << SOElement (sfDestination,         SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfAmount,              SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfCondition,           SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfCancelAfter,         SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfFinishAfter,         SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfDestinationTag,      SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        ;
+    add ("Payment", ttPAYMENT,
+        {
+            { sfDestination,         soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfAmount,              soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfSendMax,             soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfPaths,               soeDEFAULT  },
+            { sfInvoiceID,           soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfDestinationTag,      soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfDeliverMin,          soeOPTIONAL },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("EscrowFinish", ttESCROW_FINISH)
-        << SOElement (sfOwner,               SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfOfferSequence,       SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfFulfillment,         SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfCondition,           SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        ;
+    add ("EscrowCreate", ttESCROW_CREATE,
+        {
+            { sfDestination,         soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfAmount,              soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfCondition,           soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfCancelAfter,         soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfFinishAfter,         soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfDestinationTag,      soeOPTIONAL },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("EscrowCancel", ttESCROW_CANCEL)
-        << SOElement (sfOwner,               SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfOfferSequence,       SOE_REQUIRED)
-        ;
+    add ("EscrowFinish", ttESCROW_FINISH,
+        {
+            { sfOwner,               soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfOfferSequence,       soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfFulfillment,         soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfCondition,           soeOPTIONAL },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("EnableAmendment", ttAMENDMENT)
-        << SOElement (sfLedgerSequence,      SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfAmendment,           SOE_REQUIRED)
-        ;
+    add ("EscrowCancel", ttESCROW_CANCEL,
+        {
+            { sfOwner,               soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfOfferSequence,       soeREQUIRED },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("SetFee", ttFEE)
-        << SOElement (sfLedgerSequence,      SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfBaseFee,             SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfReferenceFeeUnits,   SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfReserveBase,         SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfReserveIncrement,    SOE_REQUIRED)
-        ;
+    add ("EnableAmendment", ttAMENDMENT,
+        {
+            { sfLedgerSequence,      soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfAmendment,           soeREQUIRED },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("TicketCreate", ttTICKET_CREATE)
-        << SOElement (sfTarget,              SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfExpiration,          SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        ;
+    add ("SetFee", ttFEE,
+        {
+            { sfLedgerSequence,      soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfBaseFee,             soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfReferenceFeeUnits,   soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfReserveBase,         soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfReserveIncrement,    soeREQUIRED },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("TicketCancel", ttTICKET_CANCEL)
-        << SOElement (sfTicketID,            SOE_REQUIRED)
-        ;
+    add ("TicketCreate", ttTICKET_CREATE,
+        {
+            { sfTarget,              soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfExpiration,          soeOPTIONAL },
+        },
+        commonFields);
+
+    add ("TicketCancel", ttTICKET_CANCEL,
+        {
+            { sfTicketID,            soeREQUIRED },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
     // The SignerEntries are optional because a SignerList is deleted by
     // setting the SignerQuorum to zero and omitting SignerEntries.
-    add ("SignerListSet", ttSIGNER_LIST_SET)
-        << SOElement (sfSignerQuorum,        SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfSignerEntries,       SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        ;
+    add ("SignerListSet", ttSIGNER_LIST_SET,
+        {
+            { sfSignerQuorum,        soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfSignerEntries,       soeOPTIONAL },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("PaymentChannelCreate", ttPAYCHAN_CREATE)
-        << SOElement (sfDestination,         SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfAmount,              SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfSettleDelay,         SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfPublicKey,           SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfCancelAfter,         SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfDestinationTag,      SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        ;
+    add ("PaymentChannelCreate", ttPAYCHAN_CREATE,
+        {
+            { sfDestination,         soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfAmount,              soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfSettleDelay,         soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfPublicKey,           soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfCancelAfter,         soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfDestinationTag,      soeOPTIONAL },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("PaymentChannelFund", ttPAYCHAN_FUND)
-        << SOElement (sfPayChannel,          SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfAmount,              SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfExpiration,          SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        ;
+    add ("PaymentChannelFund", ttPAYCHAN_FUND,
+        {
+            { sfPayChannel,          soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfAmount,              soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfExpiration,          soeOPTIONAL },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("PaymentChannelClaim", ttPAYCHAN_CLAIM)
-        << SOElement (sfPayChannel,          SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfAmount,              SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfBalance,             SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfSignature,           SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfPublicKey,           SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        ;
+    add ("PaymentChannelClaim", ttPAYCHAN_CLAIM,
+        {
+            { sfPayChannel,          soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfAmount,              soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfBalance,             soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfSignature,           soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfPublicKey,           soeOPTIONAL },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("CheckCreate", ttCHECK_CREATE)
-        << SOElement (sfDestination,         SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfSendMax,             SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfExpiration,          SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfDestinationTag,      SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfInvoiceID,           SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        ;
+    add ("CheckCreate", ttCHECK_CREATE,
+        {
+            { sfDestination,         soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfSendMax,             soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfExpiration,          soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfDestinationTag,      soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfInvoiceID,           soeOPTIONAL },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("CheckCash", ttCHECK_CASH)
-        << SOElement (sfCheckID,             SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement (sfAmount,              SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfDeliverMin,          SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        ;
+    add ("CheckCash", ttCHECK_CASH,
+        {
+            { sfCheckID,             soeREQUIRED },
+            { sfAmount,              soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfDeliverMin,          soeOPTIONAL },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("CheckCancel", ttCHECK_CANCEL)
-        << SOElement (sfCheckID,             SOE_REQUIRED)
-        ;
+    add ("CheckCancel", ttCHECK_CANCEL,
+        {
+            { sfCheckID,             soeREQUIRED },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 
-    add ("DepositPreauth", ttDEPOSIT_PREAUTH)
-        << SOElement (sfAuthorize,           SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement (sfUnauthorize,         SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        ;
-}
-
-void TxFormats::addCommonFields (Item& item)
-{
-    item
-        << SOElement(sfTransactionType,      SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement(sfFlags,                SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement(sfSourceTag,            SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement(sfAccount,              SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement(sfSequence,             SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement(sfPreviousTxnID,        SOE_OPTIONAL) // emulate027
-        << SOElement(sfLastLedgerSequence,   SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement(sfAccountTxnID,         SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement(sfFee,                  SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement(sfOperationLimit,       SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement(sfMemos,                SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement(sfSigningPubKey,        SOE_REQUIRED)
-        << SOElement(sfTxnSignature,         SOE_OPTIONAL)
-        << SOElement(sfSigners,              SOE_OPTIONAL) // submit_multisigned
-        ;
+    add ("DepositPreauth", ttDEPOSIT_PREAUTH,
+        {
+            { sfAuthorize,           soeOPTIONAL },
+            { sfUnauthorize,         soeOPTIONAL },
+        },
+        commonFields);
 }
 
 TxFormats const&
diff --git a/src/test/protocol/STObject_test.cpp b/src/test/protocol/STObject_test.cpp
index 9861d1a47..c742627f7 100644
--- a/src/test/protocol/STObject_test.cpp
+++ b/src/test/protocol/STObject_test.cpp
@@ -237,10 +237,9 @@ public:
         unexpected (sfGeneric.isUseful (), "sfGeneric must not be useful");
         {
             // Try to put sfGeneric in an SOTemplate.
-            SOTemplate elements;
             except<std::runtime_error>( [&]()
                 {
-                    elements.push_back (SOElement (sfGeneric, SOE_REQUIRED));
+                    SOTemplate elements {{ sfGeneric, soeREQUIRED }};
                 });
         }
 
@@ -260,19 +259,19 @@ public:
         }
         {
             // Try to put sfInvalid in an SOTemplate.
-            SOTemplate elements;
             except<std::runtime_error>( [&]()
                 {
-                    elements.push_back (SOElement (sfInvalid, SOE_REQUIRED));
+                    SOTemplate elements {{ sfInvalid, soeREQUIRED }};
                 });
         }
         {
             // Try to put the same SField into an SOTemplate twice.
-            SOTemplate elements;
-            elements.push_back (SOElement (sfAccount, SOE_REQUIRED));
             except<std::runtime_error>( [&]()
                 {
-                    elements.push_back (SOElement (sfAccount, SOE_REQUIRED));
+                    SOTemplate elements {
+                        { sfAccount, soeREQUIRED },
+                        { sfAccount, soeREQUIRED },
+                    };
                 });
         }
 
@@ -284,12 +283,14 @@ public:
         SField const& sfTestObject = sfMajority;
 
 
-        SOTemplate elements;
-        elements.push_back (SOElement (sfFlags, SOE_REQUIRED));
-        elements.push_back (SOElement (sfTestVL, SOE_REQUIRED));
-        elements.push_back (SOElement (sfTestH256, SOE_OPTIONAL));
-        elements.push_back (SOElement (sfTestU32, SOE_REQUIRED));
-        elements.push_back (SOElement (sfTestV256, SOE_OPTIONAL));
+        SOTemplate const elements
+            {
+                { sfFlags,    soeREQUIRED },
+                { sfTestVL,   soeREQUIRED },
+                { sfTestH256, soeOPTIONAL },
+                { sfTestU32,  soeREQUIRED },
+                { sfTestV256, soeOPTIONAL },
+            };
 
         STObject object1 (elements, sfTestObject);
         STObject object2 (object1);
@@ -419,17 +420,14 @@ public:
         }
 
         // read templated object
-
-        auto const sot = [&]()
-        {
-            SOTemplate sot;
-            sot.push_back(SOElement(sf1, SOE_REQUIRED));
-            sot.push_back(SOElement(sf2, SOE_OPTIONAL));
-            sot.push_back(SOElement(sf3, SOE_DEFAULT));
-            sot.push_back(SOElement(sf4, SOE_OPTIONAL));
-            sot.push_back(SOElement(sf5, SOE_DEFAULT));
-            return sot;
-        }();
+        SOTemplate const sot
+            {
+                { sf1, soeREQUIRED },
+                { sf2, soeOPTIONAL },
+                { sf3, soeDEFAULT },
+                { sf4, soeOPTIONAL },
+                { sf5, soeDEFAULT },
+            };
 
         {
             auto const st = [&]()
@@ -643,14 +641,13 @@ public:
             auto const& sf1 = sfIndexes;
             auto const& sf2 = sfHashes;
             auto const& sf3 = sfAmendments;
-            auto const sot = [&]()
-            {
-                SOTemplate sot;
-                sot.push_back(SOElement(sf1, SOE_REQUIRED));
-                sot.push_back(SOElement(sf2, SOE_OPTIONAL));
-                sot.push_back(SOElement(sf3, SOE_DEFAULT));
-                return sot;
-            }();
+            SOTemplate const sot
+                {
+                    { sf1, soeREQUIRED },
+                    { sf2, soeOPTIONAL },
+                    { sf3, soeDEFAULT  },
+                };
+
             STObject st(sot, sfGeneric);
             auto const& cst(st);
             BEAST_EXPECT(cst[sf1].size() == 0);
diff --git a/src/test/protocol/STTx_test.cpp b/src/test/protocol/STTx_test.cpp
index 3ca07704a..6bf39eaaf 100644
--- a/src/test/protocol/STTx_test.cpp
+++ b/src/test/protocol/STTx_test.cpp
@@ -1250,9 +1250,11 @@ public:
         {
             // Construct an SOTemplate to get the ball rolling on building
             // an STObject that can contain another STObject.
-            SOTemplate recurse;
-            recurse.push_back (SOElement {sfTransactionMetaData, SOE_OPTIONAL});
-            recurse.push_back (SOElement {sfTransactionHash, SOE_OPTIONAL});
+            SOTemplate const recurse
+                {
+                    { sfTransactionMetaData, soeOPTIONAL},
+                    { sfTransactionHash,     soeOPTIONAL},
+                };
 
             // Make an STObject that nests objects ten levels deep.  There's
             // a minimum transaction size we must meet, so include a hash256.
@@ -1312,10 +1314,12 @@ public:
 
             // Construct an SOTemplate to get the ball rolling on building
             // an STObject that can contain an STArray.
-            SOTemplate recurse;
-            recurse.push_back (SOElement {sfTransactionMetaData, SOE_OPTIONAL});
-            recurse.push_back (SOElement {sfTransactionHash, SOE_OPTIONAL});
-            recurse.push_back (SOElement {sfTemplate, SOE_OPTIONAL});
+            SOTemplate recurse
+                {
+                    { sfTransactionMetaData, soeOPTIONAL },
+                    { sfTransactionHash,     soeOPTIONAL },
+                    { sfTemplate,            soeOPTIONAL },
+                };
 
             // Make an STObject that nests ten levels deep alternating objects
             // and arrays.  Include a hash256 to meet the minimum transaction