diff --git a/src/ripple/rpc/Output.h b/src/ripple/rpc/Output.h
index e39dd108b..1584afe70 100644
--- a/src/ripple/rpc/Output.h
+++ b/src/ripple/rpc/Output.h
@@ -20,15 +20,20 @@
 #ifndef RIPPLED_RIPPLE_BASICS_TYPES_OUTPUT_H
 #define RIPPLED_RIPPLE_BASICS_TYPES_OUTPUT_H
 
+#include <boost/utility/string_ref.hpp>
+
 namespace ripple {
+namespace RPC {
 
-class Output
+using Output = std::function <void (boost::string_ref const&)>;
+
+inline
+Output stringOutput (std::string& s)
 {
-public:
-    virtual void output (char const* data, size_t length) = 0;
-    virtual ~Output() = default;
-};
+    return [&](boost::string_ref const& b) { s.append (b.data(), b.size()); };
+}
 
+} // RPC
 } // ripple
 
 #endif
diff --git a/src/ripple/rpc/impl/JsonWriter.cpp b/src/ripple/rpc/impl/JsonWriter.cpp
index 870405c1a..5873db6e5 100644
--- a/src/ripple/rpc/impl/JsonWriter.cpp
+++ b/src/ripple/rpc/impl/JsonWriter.cpp
@@ -63,51 +63,50 @@ size_t lengthWithoutTrailingZeros (std::string const& s)
 class Writer::Impl
 {
 public:
-    Impl (Output& output) : output_(output) {}
+    Impl (Output output) : output_(output) {}
 
     Impl(Impl&&) = delete;
     Impl& operator=(Impl&&) = delete;
 
-
     bool empty() const { return stack_.empty (); }
 
     void start (CollectionType ct)
     {
         char ch = (ct == array) ? openBracket : openBrace;
-        output (&ch, 1);
+        output ({&ch, 1});
         stack_.push (Collection());
         stack_.top().type = ct;
     }
 
-    void output (char const* data, size_t size)
+    void output (boost::string_ref const& bytes)
     {
         markStarted ();
-        output_.output (data, size);
+        output_ (bytes);
     }
 
-    void stringOutput (char const* data, size_t size)
+    void stringOutput (boost::string_ref const& bytes)
     {
         markStarted ();
-        size_t position = 0, writtenUntil = 0;
+        std::size_t position = 0, writtenUntil = 0;
 
-        output_.output (&quote, 1);
-        for (; position < size; ++position)
+        output_ ({&quote, 1});
+        auto data = bytes.data();
+        for (; position < bytes.size(); ++position)
         {
             auto i = jsonSpecialCharacterEscape.find (data[position]);
             if (i != jsonSpecialCharacterEscape.end ())
             {
                 if (writtenUntil < position)
                 {
-                    output_.output (
-                        data + writtenUntil, position - writtenUntil);
+                    output_ ({data + writtenUntil, position - writtenUntil});
                 }
-                output_.output (i->second, jsonEscapeLength);
+                output_ ({i->second, jsonEscapeLength});
                 writtenUntil = position + 1;
             };
         }
         if (writtenUntil < position)
-            output_.output (data + writtenUntil, position - writtenUntil);
-        output_.output (&quote, 1);
+            output_ ({data + writtenUntil, position - writtenUntil});
+        output_ ({&quote, 1});
     }
 
     void markStarted ()
@@ -129,7 +128,7 @@ public:
         if (stack_.top ().isFirst)
             stack_.top ().isFirst = false;
         else
-            output (&comma, 1);
+            output_ ({&comma, 1});
     }
 
     void writeObjectTag (std::string const& tag)
@@ -141,8 +140,8 @@ public:
         tags.insert (tag);
 #endif
 
-        stringOutput (tag.data(), tag.size());
-        output (&colon, 1);
+        stringOutput (tag);
+        output_ ({&colon, 1});
     }
 
     bool isFinished() const
@@ -156,7 +155,7 @@ public:
 
         auto isArray = stack_.top().type == array;
         auto ch = isArray ? closeBracket : closeBrace;
-        output (&ch, 1);
+        output_ ({&ch, 1});
         stack_.pop();
     }
 
@@ -188,13 +187,13 @@ private:
 
     using Stack = std::stack <Collection, std::vector<Collection>>;
 
-    Output& output_;
+    Output output_;
     Stack stack_;
 
     bool isStarted_ = false;
 };
 
-Writer::Writer (Output& output) : impl_(std::make_unique <Impl> (output))
+Writer::Writer (Output output) : impl_(std::make_unique <Impl> (output))
 {
 }
 
@@ -216,39 +215,38 @@ Writer& Writer::operator=(Writer&& w)
 
 void Writer::output (char const* s)
 {
-    impl_->stringOutput (s, strlen (s));
+    impl_->stringOutput (s);
 }
 
 void Writer::output (std::string const& s)
 {
-    impl_->stringOutput (s.data(), s.size ());
+    impl_->stringOutput (s);
 }
 
 template <>
 void Writer::output (float f)
 {
     auto s = to_string (f);
-    impl_->output (s.data (), lengthWithoutTrailingZeros (s));
+    impl_->output ({s.data (), lengthWithoutTrailingZeros (s)});
 }
 
 template <>
 void Writer::output (double f)
 {
     auto s = to_string (f);
-    impl_->output (s.data (), lengthWithoutTrailingZeros (s));
+    impl_->output ({s.data (), lengthWithoutTrailingZeros (s)});
 }
 
 template <>
 void Writer::output (std::nullptr_t)
 {
-    impl_->output ("null", strlen("null"));
+    impl_->output ("null");
 }
 
 template <typename Type>
 void Writer::output (Type t)
 {
-    auto s = to_string (t);
-    impl_->output (s.data(), s.size());
+    impl_->output (to_string (t));
 }
 
 void Writer::finishAll ()
diff --git a/src/ripple/rpc/impl/JsonWriter.h b/src/ripple/rpc/impl/JsonWriter.h
index 55f56ec5e..70f4591b1 100644
--- a/src/ripple/rpc/impl/JsonWriter.h
+++ b/src/ripple/rpc/impl/JsonWriter.h
@@ -127,7 +127,7 @@ class Writer
 public:
     enum CollectionType {array, object};
 
-    explicit Writer (Output& output);
+    explicit Writer (Output output);
     Writer(Writer&&);
     Writer& operator=(Writer&&);
 
diff --git a/src/ripple/rpc/impl/JsonWriter_test.cpp b/src/ripple/rpc/impl/JsonWriter_test.cpp
index e8de1344b..9eb136a77 100644
--- a/src/ripple/rpc/impl/JsonWriter_test.cpp
+++ b/src/ripple/rpc/impl/JsonWriter_test.cpp
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ public:
     void testTrivial ()
     {
         setup ("trivial");
-        expect (output_.data.empty ());
+        expect (output_.empty ());
         writer_->output (0);
         expectResult("0");
     }
diff --git a/src/ripple/rpc/impl/TestOutputSuite.h b/src/ripple/rpc/impl/TestOutputSuite.h
index 604b633b8..86e7561b9 100644
--- a/src/ripple/rpc/impl/TestOutputSuite.h
+++ b/src/ripple/rpc/impl/TestOutputSuite.h
@@ -20,6 +20,7 @@
 #ifndef RIPPLED_RIPPLE_RPC_IMPL_TESTOUTPUT_H
 #define RIPPLED_RIPPLE_RPC_IMPL_TESTOUTPUT_H
 
+#include <ripple/rpc/Output.h>
 #include <ripple/rpc/impl/JsonWriter.h>
 #include <beast/unit_test/suite.h>
 
@@ -27,36 +28,32 @@ namespace ripple {
 namespace RPC {
 namespace New {
 
-struct TestOutput : public Output
-{
-    void output (char const* s, size_t length) override
-    {
-        data.append (s, length);
-    }
-
-    std::string data;
-};
-
-
 class TestOutputSuite : public beast::unit_test::suite
 {
 protected:
-    TestOutput output_;
+    std::string output_;
+
     std::unique_ptr <Writer> writer_;
 
     void setup (std::string const& testName)
     {
         testcase (testName);
-        output_.data.clear ();
-        writer_ = std::make_unique <Writer> (output_);
+        output_.clear ();
+        writer_ = std::make_unique <Writer> (stringOutput (output_));
     }
 
     // Test the result and report values.
     void expectResult (std::string const& expected)
     {
-        expect (output_.data == expected,
-                "\nresult:   " + output_.data +
-                "\nexpected: " + expected);
+        expectResult (output_, expected);
+    }
+
+    // Test the result and report values.
+    void expectResult (std::string const& result, std::string const& expected)
+    {
+        expect (result == expected,
+                "\n" "result:   '" + result + "'" +
+                "\n" "expected: '" + expected + "'");
     }
 };